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Most finishing products have only three major components: 1. Resin. This is what remains and becomes the "solids" part of the finish. For shellac or lacquer, this is, well, shellac or lacquer. For an oil, an oil, usually linseed or tung For a waterborne finish, it's mostly acrylic resin. For a wax, it's a wax or combination of animal (beeswax), vegetable (carnuba), or mineral (petroleum paraffin) For a varnish, it's a cooked combination of an oil (linseed, soy, or tung) plus plastic (urethane, alkyd, or phenolic) For a pigment stain, the resin is known as "binder" to hold the pigments in place until a top coat is applied. It can be an oil, varnish, waterborne, or lacquer. 2. Thinner or solvent (or both) For shellac, alcohol solvent For lacquer, it's a soup of solvents, co-solvents and thinners. The mix is determined by economics (costs) and desired speed of evaporation and other properties. Usually, it's mostly a mix of alcohols, ketones, and petroleum distillates. So lacquer "thinner" is both a thinner and a solvent. For an oil, generally none For a waterborne finish, glycol ethers as "softeners" and water as a thinner For a wax, petroleum distillates as a solvent For a varnish, petroleum distillates, this time as a thinner only and not a solvent For a dye stain, the solvent (water or alcohol, usually) dissolves the dye. For a pigment stain, the thinner suspends the pigment particles and makes a wiping or spraying consistency. 3. Colorant Dyes - these are dissolved in the solvent and can be in a dye stain or a toner Pigment - these are suspended in the thinner and can be in a pigment stain, toner, or glaze Tar, yes, some finishes contain a tar, sometimes obfuscated as asphaltum or Gilsonite (tm). This is dissolved in the solvent as is sometimes used in stains or "walnut" danish oils. You can also make your own wiping stain by mixing some (non-fiber) roofing tar with mineral spirits of naphtha https://thefinishingstore.com/blogs/news/asphaltum-a-forgotten-finishing-gem There may be other, minor components such as Flatteners usually silica to reduce the sheen level UV protectors for outdoor finishes Other chemicals, especially in waterborne to enable emulsification, reduce foaming, etc.
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