Welcome to The American Woods Project

American Woods by Shelly E. Schoonover was published in 1951 (1st Edition) by Watling & Co. Santa Monica, California. The book is a quick reference tool that was researched and written by Mrs. Schoonover with a concentration on the trees and the medium of wood that comes from trees that are grown mainly in the U.S.A. and Canada.
While the book is over 60 years old, the content is still very relative to the arts, crafts and trades that is woodworking today.

Here, in this archive, I am in the process of transferring the content of American Woods to digital format. The format you are about to view this book in, is not your typical digitized .pdf document that is relatively easy to recreate, by simply removing the pages of a book from the cover and binding, and running them through a scanner, as many archivists do.
Instead what I have done, is manually transfer the content of American Woods by typing the content of the book into our wiki, and by scanning the images from the book and uploading them here, in order to display on the relative pages as they are in the book.

I have also taken the freedoms to use open source images from the world wide web to supplement the pages I recreated from American Woods, in order to bolster the material that Mrs. Schoonover created, and by adding visually stimulating graphics and images.

In Closing

What I am intending to do here is to replicate and buttress a wonderful research project that is held in high regard among forestry experts as one of the most understandable and reliable books about this subject that was written for the every day craftsman, artist, trades-person, and for those who just like this genre of research.
All the credit obviously goes to Mrs. Schoonover in creating the original 1951 work in which she diligently researched and as she pulled in her own expertise in the related field of forestry.
Through all this, I have become familiar with Mrs. Schoonover through clips and quips in research related articles, and I have found that even though she seemed to have been under the radar in her work and professional life as a US Forester, she was well regarded and highly respected among her peers for the research she was involved in, for her time and service in the US Forestry Department, and for her works created as in this "American Woods" project.

Enjoy!
Sincerely
John C. Morris

Links of interest

• Handbook of American Woods Second Edition (revised and expanded 1955)

• The Land We Cared For (a PDF book containing honorable mentions of Mrs. Schoonover)

• A Revision of the North American Aphids of the Genus Myzus (a Google book containing credits to Mrs. Schoonover for her work within the stated project)

A thing of beauty is a joy forever, Its loveliness increases, it will never pass into nothingness.

~John Keats~

Introduction

A hobby may be thought of as a favorite avocation or secondary occupation, or a diversion of attention from one’s normal daily occupation or vocation. Woodworking is an absorbing and fascinating hobby, which is not only a diversion but a means of cultivating skill and creating worthwhile products. Most of us appreciate the beauty of growing trees. For many, there is in addition to this appreciation, an urge to “get inside” of the rough bark of a tree and work with its wood. Craftsmen and hobbyists have long found wood a satisfying and convenient medium of expression for useful and artistic ends. The uniqueness of each piece of wood, as to grain, figure, and color makes it a tempting material the possibilities of which seem never exhausted. A woodworker’s or hobbyist’s interest inevitably grows, not only in a desire to produce better things but to experience the use of different kinds of wood. American woods alone have great potentialities, with the added advantage that many beautiful and workable species of them are readily accessible to anyone who takes up woodworking.

The legends of trees and the facts about their geographic origins and locations add zest to one’s experience in working with woods. Imagine the pleasure of making a desk name plate from Prairie or Wild Crab Apple, found in the northeastern States; an electric table lamp from Southern Waxmyrtle, found in the southeastern States, in conjunction with Pawpaw, American Smoketree (Yellowwood) and Cum Bumelia or Gum Elastic found in the central States; a bud vase from Elderberry or Cascara Buckthorn, found in the northwestern States; a fruit bowl from Tamarisk and Pacific Madrona, found in the southwestern States; or a pair of salt and pepper shakers from the Lilac found in most of our States.

Our early American hardwoods were first utilized by handicraft methods. Today, while many craftsmen still Choose this method, the use of power as well as hand tools characterizes most modern woodworking. As a result, a woodworking hobby provides the added interest in developing proficiency in the use of tools, in addition to the element of creativeness and ingenuity in planning and executing designs and articles in wood. Woodworking machinery and tools, in fact, offer a great opportunity to many individuals who wish to create worthwhile articles of wood, yet would be limited in their ability to do so with only simple hand methods.

Fortunately, American woods in abundance and tools to work with are at hand for the energetic hobbyist.

Improved Tools and Machinery

During the last decade a tremendous development has taken place in the production of woodworking machinery for the home workshop. It is no longer the exclusive privilege of the well-to-do to be able to acquire the various woodworking machines necessary for the operation of a well equipped home workshop. All types of woodworking machines can now be obtained in all price ranges. These machines have been tremendously important in the utilization of spare time and the development of hobbies, especially for professional people. Manual training has also become an increasingly important part of our public school systems, many of which have training centers well equipped with all types of woodworking machinery and tools. Men and women of all ages are taking advantage of these facilities.

Woodworking machines, of course, do not entirely replace hand tools, but they make it possible to widen the range of projects adaptable to the home workshop. Work can be done with greater precision and speed and often greater satisfaction. After gaining reasonable proficiency in the use of common carpenter hand tools, the natural desire is to expand the home workshop to include one or more of the woodworking machines.The circular saw, band saw, jig saw, lathe, planer, shaper, jointer, drill press, sander and other similar power machines are now available in all price ranges.

Use of American Woods

While the lumber in the common dry goods box or orange crate may be good starting material for the home craftsman, he soon will desire better and more attractive woods. There are a number of commercial concerns dealing exclusively in the distribution of rare and beautiful cabinet woods for the home wood craftsman. However, it is surprising to find that the list of American commercial cabinet woods is comparatively limited. Aside from black walnut, maple, cherry, poplar and perhaps a dozen or so other species, the emphasis is predominantly on foreign woods. There are few, if any, commercial concerns handling fine cabinet woods, who make a specialty of providing a wide selection of beautiful native woods which may be utilized by the home craftsman. Yet, within the limits of the continental United States may be found a very wide variety of fine woods with exquisite color, grains, and markings. In fact, they are, with very few exceptions, as beautiful as most foreign woods now used in this country. A large number of these American Woods have not been put on the commercial market, mainly because the trees are not found in commercial forest stands in sufficient quantity to make it profitable to cut and season them especially for the lumber trade. Many of these woods, however, have been cut for veneer uses, which accounts for the fact that a very much larger number of American woods are available in veneer stock.

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

Usually a tree has two names, the common or local name and the “real name,” or scientific or botanical name, in Latin, generally used by botanists and others having a more technical interest. The generic name is used to include a group of closely related species. For example, “Pinus,” the classical Latin name for the pine tree group, includes all the species (kinds) of true pines. The secondary Latin name signifies the particular species of that tree group, as “Pinus strobus,” the scientific or botanical name for White Pine (now called Eastern White Pine). The name of the scientist who discovered and named the particular species is sometimes indicated after the botanical name, as “Pinus strobus Linnaeus.” The use of a common name for a tree quite frequently results in much confusion because of the lack of universal agreement as to what should be the proper common name of a given tree. Some trees have from 10 to 25 different common names for the same species, depending upon the locality in which the tree is found. For example, Pinus ponderosa, which covers a wide range in the western half of North America, is the scientific name for Ponderosa or Western Yellow Pine, the common names usually accepted, but it also is called Bull Pine, Black Jack and many other common names in various parts of its range. In the United States Forest Service both common and scientific names of trees are passed upon by a special committee named by the Chief Forester. However, this committee collaborates in this work with the various colleges of the country in which the science of forestry is taught. In this book both the common and scientific names approved in the latest “Check List” of this special committee are given.

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

Introduction

You are viewing the "State Trees" section from the book title "American Woods" by Shelley E. Schoonover. The table below is a representation of our states official and or adopted trees from the publish date of 1951.

You may notice that the state of Alaska is not represented in the table below, since statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.
Also Hawaii is not included in the states list below, statehood was granted on August 21, 1959, 8 years after the publishing of American Woods.

Legend and Definitions

"Spp." is the abbreviation for "species." It means that the author is referring to all species in that given genus. Often it is also used when the author doesn't know the specific species but knows that it is in a certain genus; i.e., there are many plants in the genus Salvia, and they can all be lumped together in Salvia spp.

(a) Officially designated by legislative action.
(b) Selected by popular vote of the people or unofficially recognized.
(c) Prominent tree growing within the State.

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

The accompanying illustrations gives a graphic picture of the physical properties of a tree. There are three primary parts to a tree: the roots, the trunk, and the crown. The roots extract from the soil the water and mineral salts needed by the tree in its growth. They also store up the food manufactured by the leaves, and hold the tree firmly in place. The trunk is the main body of the tree from which lumber is manufactured. Each year a new layer of wood is added to the trunk of the tree. These layers produce the "grain" and "figure" of the wood.

The crown embraces the branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. Water and sunshine give life to the tree and are limiting factors in its growth.

It is not our purpose to go into a great deal of detail with regard to tree growth since this is a specialized study. The illustration is included to give a general picture of the physical make-up of a tree and to form a basis for the study which follows of the beauty and usefulness of many kinds of woods found in the United States.

_{Illustration Pg. 7 American Woods}

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

Definitions

A. - CAMBIUM. A very thin layer of living cells lying between the inner bark and sapwood, where the new wood and bark cells develop each year.

B. - INNER BARK. Serves to carry the food manufactured by the leaves to the cambium layer.

C. - OUTER BARK. The inner bark gradually transforms into the outer bark, a corky layer of dry dead cells forming a protective covering.

D. - SAPWOOD. The lighter colored band of wood between the inner bard and darker heartwood. It carries the sap from the roots to the leaves.

E. - HEARTWOOD. Formed by a gradual change in the sapwood by which it becomes darker, heavier and often more durable. Most trees form heartwood. It is inactive but gives strength to the trunk.

F. - PITH. The soft spongy tissue in the center of the tree trunk and all branches. The pith in some trees is so small it is not discernible without greatly magnifying it.

G. - MEDULLARY RAYS. Wood rays or medullary rays are very small, flat, vertical bands or ribbon-shaped sheets of tissue (ducts) connecting the pith with the various layers of wood and the inner bark, and by which food and water are stored and transported horizontally in the tree.

H. - ANNUAL RING. Each year a tree adds an additional layer of wood to is circumference, this layer forming immediately beneath the bark and is called "annual ring" or "growth ring". In the spring the newly formed cells are thin-walled and spongy, called "springwood," while in midsummer and fall the walls of the cells become thicker and more dense, called "summerwood."

Summary

Springwood and Summerwood: Annual rings are divided into two layers, the inner and the outer. The soft open wood of the inner layer formed in the springtime is called "springwood,' and the more dense and harder outer layer formed in the summertime or balance of the growing season is called "summerwood." These layers differ in physical properties. In the "springwood" the cells have rather large cavities and thin walls and the wood is softer, weaker and lighter in weight than the "summerwood." Climate, soil and habitat influence the rate of growth and consequently the size of the cells. Some species such as catalpa, willows, cottonwood, loblolly pine and some of the oaks, have wide annual rings in which the "springwood" and "summerwood" may be identified without great difficulty. Other species such as the persimmon, maple, gum, birth and magnolia have narrow annual rings in which the "spring-wood" and "summerwood" are difficult to detect.

The "wood increment" is the annual wood growth of the tree each year. The figures produced by the growth rings when sawed by different methods are very pronounced and attractive in some woods such as ash, butternut, birch, chestnut, elm, oak, black walnut and many others.

Sapwood and Heartwood: The outer active portion of the tree, next to the bark, through which the sap (water and salts) flows from the roots upward and which forms the living tissues of the tree, is called Sapwood. The portion from the inside edge of the sapwood to the center ( or pith) of the tree is called Heartwood, or what Foresters call a dead core without vital functions so far as the life of the tree is concerned. Its technical functions are mechanical only, giving strength to the trunk. As a rule the sapwood is void of very much color or distinctive markings. In some woods such as osage-orange, black cherry, butternut and Kentucky coffee-tree, the sapwood is very narrow. In other woods such as basswood, hackberry, maple, loblolly pine and beech the sapwood is very wide. In the description of the wood under each species the distinction in color between the sapwood and heartwood is given. The bark discolors the sapwood in some woods if it is not immediately removed after the tree is cut. Sap stain of a bluish color is frequently imparted to some woods if the log is left in the forest or in the skidways any length of time. Generally logs should be sawed into lumber very soon after the trees are felled.

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

A live tree contains a great amount of water in the walls and cell cavities of the fibers of the wood. When the log is cut into lumber and exposed to the air, the fibers shrink and dry out as the water in the wood is evaporated. The seasoning process consists of the elimination of water from the wood pores. If the drying process is not done properly the wood checks, warps, splits and is subject to stain and insect attack. The degree to which the water content is removed from the wood depends upon the purposes for which the seasoned lumber is to be used. For some purposes, such as for boxes or crating, the wood need not be thoroughly dry, while wood used in the manufacture of furniture, fixtures, etc. must be thoroughly dry and very well seasoned. In general the wood used by the aver-age home craftsman must be thoroughly seasoned.

There are two principal processes used in seasoning wood, namely air drying and kiln drying. As a rule the quantity of lumber of any particular kind used by the home craftsman is comparatively small and his lumber is obtained from a local lumber yard or from a dealer specializing in woods for his use. He should insist upon getting thoroughly seasoned lumber and, if possible, obtain dry-kilned supplies.

There are a number of publications available regarding the specialized processes of seasoning lumber, and since the average home craftsman is not equipped for seasoning lumber by the dry-kiln process, this discussion will be limited to a brief description of air drying.

Air drying consists of piling the lumber, usually outdoors, in such a way that the air can circulate throughout the pile and thus absorb the moisture from the wood through evaporation. The atmospheric conditions in the locality and the way in which the lumber is piled influences the degree and speed with which the moisture in the lumber is removed. It usually requires many months to properly season lumber by air drying. If the lumber is carefully and properly piled and stripped with narrow pieces called "stickers", air drying can be accomplished so as to avoid warping, excessive checking, stain, decay or insect infestation.

A proper base should be prepared upon which the lumber is to be piled so that there will be proper drainage and the air can pass freely underneath, around and through the pile. The boards or lumber should be laid in rows with air spaces between each piece and narrow strips or stickers placed from 2 to 4 feet apart and spaced uniformly throughout the pile, directly over each other and at both ends placed flush or slightly beyond the ends of the board. The layers are given a pitch of about one inch to the foot for drainage. The pile should be situated so as to take full advantage of the prevailing winds and should be sloped from the front to the rear for proper drainage during rainy weather. A "roof", or top protective covering should be put over the lumber pile consisting of a double layer of boards placed crosswise to the pile and overlapping each other. The roof should be stripped so that it will be approximately five or six inches above the first layer of lumber and provide ample air circulation. It should overlap one to two feet in front but only a few inches in the rear, sufficient to reasonably deflect the rain from the pile.

If lumber is dried too rapidly excessive checking and warping occurs. This can be controlled by using thinner stickers, making wider piles, narrowing the spaces between the boards in the piles and also between piles, placing covers over the piles as a protection against the weather and reducing the flow of air through the vents.

Some lumber companies stand the lumber on end and at an angle, leaving spaces between the boards and stripping between the rows, and without a roof covering. This system is followed to some extent in the Southern states where the rainfall is comparatively light. Piling is also done in this manner by some concerns in the Pacific Northwest with certain species of lumber. However, more satisfactory and thorough results are obtained by air drying lumber in piles as above explained.

It may be found more convenient to the average craftsman to air-dry his lumber in a building or open shed to avoid excessive exposure to the weather.

Quite frequently the home craftsman desires to season a small section of a log or limb without sawing it into pieces of lumber. Sections from a small or medium sized tree or limb can be dried conveniently by placing a good covering of paraffin over each end of the piece and over each cut where a branch has been cut off, and storing it in a dry place where the air can freely circulate all around it. A sealer such as is used by nurserymen when trimming trees may also be used in lieu of the paraffin. Ample time should be allowed for the moisture to be completely evaporated from the piece. Usually this will require several months to a year or more.

Any craftsman desiring to study the subject of wood seasoning in more detail may obtain a number of bulletins on the subject at small cost from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

There are three methods used in producing lumber from logs so as to obtain economical utilization or develop the beautiful grains and figures found in the various kinds of trees, namely:

(a) Plain-sawed - When the log is sawed lengthwise and tangent to the annual growth rings or at right angles to the medullary rays the cut is called "plain-sawed" lumber in hardwoods and "flat-grain" or "slash-grain" lumber in softwoods. This is the most economical manner of producing lumber with the least waste. Also in many trees such as ash, chestnut, elm, and most softwoods ( conifers) the plain-sawed method shows the best grain and figure in the wood.

(b) Quarter-sawed - When the log is sawed parallel to the radius or rays, across the rings from the bark to the center, the cut is called "quarter-sawed" in hardwoods and "edge-grain," "vertical-grain" or "rift-sawed" lumber in softwoods. Some species have very prominent medullary rays which accounts for the beautiful figure shown in such quarter-sawed woods as oak, maple, and sycamore.

( c) Veneers - Veneers are produced in four ways, namely:

Rotary Veneer - When the log is rotated against the edge of a sharp knife which pares off a thin continuous ribbon or strip the full width of the veneer log or bolt.

1. Sliced Veneer - When the log is sliced by being moved lengthwise against a large knife.

2. Sawed Veneer - When the log is sawed lengthwise in thin slabs, this usually being done with fine toothed saws.

3. Cone Cut - When the veneer is shaved from the end of a cylindrical bolt of wood similar to the manner in which a pencil is sharpened.

Sawed or sliced veneers may be cut from a veneer log in any direction. Sawed veneer may be cut so as to obtain a "sliver grain" or "quartered sawed" figure. In rotary veneer the growth-ring figure of the log is continuous and extends through the log so that as a thin slice is taken off, the pattern is the same, and one piece can be switched with another cut from the same veneer bolt. Usually the entire volume from a veneer bolt is sold commercially as a unit because no two logs have the same figure. Veneers usually range in thickness from 1/28 to 3/16 inch thick. Some veneers, however, are cut paper thin.

Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA 

Introduction

Burls, knots, medullary rays, annual growth rings, grains in the lumber such as wavy grain and cross grain, variations in the coloring matter irregularly distributed in the wood, or other distortion formed in the tree either from injury or the hazards of nature, form different patterns or figures in wood. The beauty of these figures or patterns may be greatly enhanced by the various methods of cutting the lumber from the log as previously explained. Some semblance of pattern or figure is found in all kinds of wood. In some woods the figure is very pronounced and strikingly variegated while in other woods it is obscure and rather difficult to identify. No two human beings are absolutely identical. Twins appear alike but there is usually some distinguishing characteristic. Similarly, no two pieces of wood are exactly alike or have exactly the same figure; there are differences in color, figure, texture and other physical properties. There follows a description and illustration of the most important grains and figures found in wood:

Grain Types

1. Even grain (Page 23) is found in lumber in which the contrast between “springwood” and “summerwood” is small and rather difficult to identify. The annual rings are quite uniform in width and the wood elements are parallel to the pith, such as in Birch, Maple, White Pine or Spruce. White Pine has a very even grain which makes it very desirable for pattern making.

2. Uneven grain is a term applied to lumber having a wide “summerwood,” and the growth rings are variable, wavy, and irregular such as Chestnut, Hackberry, and Osage-orange. The American Chestnut specimen shown on page 23 not only shows the uneven grain but emphasizes the attractive growth rings when cut at an angle of about 45°.

3. Straight grain applies to lumber in which the fibers are straight and parallel to the center or pith of the log, such as Pine, Fir, Redwood, Baldcypress and White Cedar. The straight grain of the Grand Fir shown on page 23 stands out prominently because of the resin ducts in the growth rings.

^{Page 23}

4. Coarse grain (Page 24) applies to woods cut from rapidly growing trees. Where the pores are large and the annual growth rings are wide and conspicuous, the wood is called “coarse-grained” or “coarse textured" such as Ash, Sumac and Oak.

5. Close grain usually occurs in woods cut from slowly growing trees. Where the pores are small or closely spaced and the annual growth rings are narrow and inconspicuous, the wood is called “close-grained” or “fine-textured" such as Sugar Maple, Beech, Sycamore, Black Cherry, American Holly, Yellow Birch or Magnolia. A very good example of close grain is the American Holly shown on page 24.

6. Edge grain. “Edge grain” or “vertical grain” is obtained when lumber is sawed parallel to the center or pith of the log and approximately at right angles to the growth rings, the rings being 45º or more to the surface of the cut. This type of lumber is used to a large extent for flooring to provide strength and long wear. The edge grain may be easily distinguished in a considerable number of our woods but none perhaps more outstanding than the Baldy cypress, shown on page 24.

^{Page 24}

7. Flat grain. “Flat grain” is obtained when lumber is sawed parallel to the center or pith of the log but tangent to the growth rings, the rings being less than 45º to the surface of the cut. The flat grain is doubtless the most common figure, best displayed in large wide boards. However, the small specimen of Yellow Birch shown on page 25 is a good example.

8. Spiral grain is a type of cross-grain and applies to lumber in which the fibers interweave and take a spiral or twisted direction, which may be either left-handed or right-handed, the latter being the most common. This grain is quite common in larch and horse chestnut wood. The wide growth rings of the Northern Catalpa shown on page 25 bring out clearly the spiral effect.

9. Diagonal grain is also a type of cross grain, and is not a natural phenomenon in the tree. It is obtained by the method of cutting the log into lumber, usually through poor milling practice, or in cutting crooked logs, where the cut is not made parallel to the fibers. When straight grain logs are not cut parallel with the fibers, a diagonal grain is obtained. The diagonal grain in the Black Walnut specimen shown on page 25 is made by cutting a straight grain board diagonally.

^{Page 25}

10. Interlocked or cross grain is found in some lumber in which the spiral fibers of the annual growth tend to grow in opposite directions. Some species have a more or less pronounced interlocked or cross-grain in a considerable proportion of trees, such as Winged Elm and to a certain extent in the Gums, Beech and Sycamore. The quarter-sawed American Sycamore shown on page 26 is a good example of the interlocked or cross-grain.

11. Silver grain. (Page 26) In quarter-sawed Oak and Sycamore lumber where the medullary rays are large and look like “flecks” or “flakes” the wood is called “silver grain.” When such lumber is cut so that the large rays appear at nearly right-angles to the fibers, this silver grain is very prominent and attractive. In matching such pieces so that the silver grain of one piece is fitted so that the angle of the “flakes” is reversed, the figure is called a “herring bone.”

12. Stripe or ribbon figure is found in quarter-sawed lumber having more or less an “interlocked or cross-grain” where the layers consist of alternating light and dark stripes, running lengthwise of the piece. Usually the grain runs alternately inward and out-ward. Not many American species produce this unusual grain. It is occasionally found in the Gums, Black Walnut, and a few other woods.

13. Blister figure is found in plain-sawed lumber or rotary-cut veneer and is produced by an uneven contour of the annual rings which have knoll-like elevations. This figure is not caused by blisters or pockets in the wood, but irregular growth. It is especially prized in the Maples, Birch and Yellow Poplar. The beautiful blister figure of the Sugar Maple is shown on page 26.

^{Page 26}

14. Quilted figure (Page 27) somewhat resembles the blister figure except the blisters are larger and cover a greater area of the board. The tree trunk below the larger limbs of leaning trees is under great pressure which causes the fibers to form corrugations in the grain. When the log is cut tangentially, this beautiful quilted figure is obtained. This unusual and attractive figure is obtained in Maple and several other hardwoods.

15. Wang figure. When the fibers have a wavy or “wrinkling” arrangement a wavy figure is produced. This occurs most frequently at the base of the tree Where the roots join the stem, or immediately below the crotch where the limb extends from the trunk. It occurs in Birch, Maple, Redwood and infrequently in some other woods. The wavy figure of Sugar Maple shown on page 27 is especially pleasing.

16. Fiddle-backfigure. (Page 27) The figure commonly known as “fiddle-back” is an unusual and very beautiful figure caused by natural fluctuations due to local conditions or influences on growth producing fine regular waves or ripples. It is this figure which is extensively used for the back of violins. This figure is found principally in Sugar Maple and Mahogany and occasionally in other woods. When the log is cut radially the fiddle-back figure is most outstanding and attractive.

^{Page 27}

17. Mottle figure. This is a very beautiful and outstanding figure formed when the fibers extend irregularly in short wavy configurations in variegated patterns. Several types of the mottle figure are produced when the grain of the wood is twisted or interwoven. It is frequently found in quarter-sawed boards and especially in Walnut butt veneers. The mottle figure of the Black Walnut is used extensively in cabinet work.

18. Snail figure.This very unusual figure is so named because of the resemblance of the fine curved lines to a snail pattern. It resembles a burl somewhat, but the snail figure is found in the trunk and stump of the tree rather than in the burl formation. The beauty of the figure is greatly enhanced by the careful cutting of the veneers. The snail figure is rather uncommon and usually confined to Black Walnut.

19. Finger Roll figure. As the name implies, this figure occurs when the fibers form a wavy pattern of finger size which extend across the grain or cross-figure, principally found in radially cut lumber. It is frequently found in fiddle-back, raindrop and mottle figures. The finger roll figure in the Sugar Maple is conspicuous - shown on page 28.

20. Bird’s-Eye figure. (Page 28) This beautiful figure is a phenomenon in wood the cause of which is not definitely known. Bird’s-eyes are conical indentations or tiny knots in the grain of the wood, usually extending from near the center of the log to the outside layer and discernible also in the bark. Some trees are found, however, in which the bird’s-eyes extend only a few inches from the outer portion of the log. The fibers are greatly distorted into what appears as small pimples or depressions in the annual rings. When once formed, the annual growth rings usually follow the same contour for years. When these depressions or pimples are cut through crosswise the figure suggests a bird’s eye. The birds eye is most frequently found in a small percentage of Sugar Maple, but may also be found in other hardwoods such as Soft Maple, White Ash and Yellow Birch. A beautiful Juniper bird’s-eye log, about 12 inches in diameter, was found in the Rocky Mountains. Such trees are very rare, however.

21. Curly figure. The curly effect appears in wood in which the fibers form waves or undulations, generally surrounding knots in the tree trunk, the distorted tissues forming this outstanding figure. It is quite common in Yellow Birch and Sugar Maple, although it is frequently found in many other hardwoods. It is seldom found in softwoods. Occasionally a very unusual curly grain is found, which because of its strange figure is called “Landscape grain.” While the curly grain is generally identified with Yellow Birch and Sugar Maple, it is occasionally found in Long-leaf Pine such as shown on page 28.

^{Page 28}

22. Burl. A burl is a wart-like abnormal growth on the outside layer of a tree trunk, usually resulting from an injury to the tree. A burl contains the dark pith of a large number of buds which have not developed, and the fibers are very distorted, irregular and do not run in any particular direction. This phenomenon may occur in any kind of tree. The burls of Black Walnut, Maple, California Laurel, Redwood, Black Cherry, Ash and Birch are exceedingly beautiful and are highly prized for cutting veneers used in the manufacturing of fine furniture or expensive novelties. Many kinds of our trees provide burls which are most attractive. The Black Ash burl shown on page 29 is an excellent specimen.

23. Swirl. (Page 29) Where the fibers are considerably contorted in barrel-shaped bulges in the log, a veneer cut produces a figure of curly grain or “swirl.” It is greatly mottled and burl-like. This conspicuous and unique figure is also greatly prized for the manufacture of furniture, and is found in a considerable number of hardwoods.

24. Knots. (Page 29) A knot is the base of a limb usually originating at or near the center of the tree. Knots due to suckers or sprouts originate near the outside of the tree trunk. They usually slope upward. Knots give a distinct figure and are attractive in some woods, such as in Eastern Red Cedar, for the manufacture of cedar chests, in pine or cedar called “Knotty Pine” or “Knotty Cedar,” used for interiors of homes and offices. The knots, however, must be solid or “tight.”

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25. Crotch figure is obtained from the tree where the large limbs join the main stem, or from the main forks of the larger limbs.It is usually Y-shaped, and is a striking figure. The most conspicuous types of it are generally found in Black Walnut. The crotch figure is rather common but nonetheless attractive in the Black Walnut specimen shown on page 30.

26. Feather Crotch figure (Page 30) is one in which the fiber alignment fans out giving the appearance of a cluster of feathers, caused by the twisted and crushed grain of the crotch-wood. The outside slices of the crotch generally produce a swirl figure changing to the feather or regular crotch figures as the slices approach the center of the piece.

27. Moonshine Crotch is a swirl figure in the crotch. The moonshine figure is very uncommon.

28. Stump-wood figure is obtained from the bell-shaped tree base immediately above the roots. The suppressed and twisted fibers in this area of the stem form an attractive figure called stump-wood figure. The stump-wood figure of Black Walnut is not particularly attractive although it is used with good results in combination with other figures.

29. Pigment figure is the name given to the distinctive figure caused by the irregular distribution of the color pigment in the wood, resulting in streaks or patches that are darker than the surrounding wood. Pigment-figured red gum is an example of this figure. The pigment figure of the Sweet Gum shown on page 30. displays prominently the color contrast in this wood.

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Bibliography

Shelley E. Schoonover (American Woods) 1951 (Watling & Co. ) Santa Monica, CA